Canadian Fur Trade1 essays

Canadian Fur Trade1 essays The Canadian fur trade, which grew out of the fishing industry, began as a small business, but would expand and become not only the exploiter of a primary Canadian resource, but the industry around which the country of Canada itself developed. The fur trade started shortly after the discovery of the Grand Banks off the coast of Newfoundland. The fishermen who fished there were the first people who traded furs with the Indians; this trade was a secondary means of profit for the fishermen. Later this secondary industry became a profitable big business due to changes in European fashion, and fashion techniques. While the fur trade brought economic growth and land discoveries, it developed its very own complex trading network throughout the wild, which laid the groundwork for a nation both geographically and financially. The Europeans and the Natives were both instrumental participants in the growth of the fur trade, but the fur trade had its ill effects on these two cultures. The fur trade not only negatively affected Native and settler life, but also had negative ecological effects, particularly on the beaver. The beaver flourished until the fur traders came after them. Because of the land discoveries and the profit made through the trapping and killing of the beavers, the animals were left nearly extinct. However the invaded habitat of the beaver would become the routes to the European settlements. In the period when the fur trade flourished there were two major players: the European traders and settlers and the Natives with whom they traded. The descendants of these two groups have different opinions on the effects of the fur trade, especially on the Natives. The question remains whether what was done to the Natives was unjust, or merely an inevitable outcome of exploration and discovery. The Natives feel that the fur trade was unjust to them; they feel the trade stole their culture from them and with it their ind...

Essay on Ethical Voting (Sample)

Essay on Ethical Voting (Sample) Essay on Ethical Voting How we vote matters. When we vote, we can aggravate government better or, and thusly, improve individuals lives. Terrible decisions at the surveys can crush monetary open doors, create emergencies that settle for what is most convenient option of living, prompt vile and superfluous wars (and subsequently to a huge number of passing’s), prompt sexist, bigot, and homophobic enactment, help fortify destitution, deliver excessively correctional criminal enactment etc. Voting dislikes picking what to eat off an eaterys menu. However, when voters settle on terrible decisions at the surveys, everybody endures. Untrustworthy voting can hurt guiltless individuals. How other individuals vote is my business. All things considered, they make it my business. Appointive choices are forced upon all through constraints, that is, through brutality and dangers of savagery. With regards to legislative issues, we are not allowed to leave terrible choices. Voters force externalities upon others. We could never say to everybody, Who cares in the event that you know anything about surgery or medication? The imperative thing is that you make your cut. Yet for reasons unknown, we do state, It doesnt make a difference on the off chance that you know much about legislative issues. The imperative thing is to vote. In the two cases, bumbling basic leadership can hurt pure individuals. Practical ethical quality instructs us to treat the two cases in an unexpected way. Conventional ethical quality isnt right. In The Ethics of Voting, I contend that residents have no standing good commitment to vote. Voting is only one of numerous ways one can pay an obligation to society, serve different subjects, advance the benefit of everyone, practice community uprightness, and keep away from free-riding off the endeavors of others. Taking part in governmental issues is not all that much, ethically. Be that as it may, I contend that if residents do choose to vote, they have exceptionally strict good commitments with respect to how they vote. I contend that nationals must vote in favor of what they justifiably accept will advance the benefit of everyone, or else they should avoid. That is, voters should vote on the premise of sound confirmation. They should put in substantial work to ensure their explanations behind voting as they do are ethically and epistemic ally legitimized. As a rule, they should vote in favor of the benefit of everyone instead of for limit self-intrigue. Residents who are unwilling or unfit to put in the diligent work of ending up great voters ought not to vote by any stretch of the imagination. They should remain home on race day as opposed to dirty the surveys with their awful votes. When we vote, we can aggravate government better or. Thus, our votes can exacerbate individuals lives better or. On the off-chance that we settle on awful decisions at the surveys, we get bigot, sexist, and homophobic laws. Monetary open doors vanish or neglect to emerge. We fight crooked and pointless wars. We burn through trillions on strange boost plans and privilege programs that do little to animate economies or lighten neediness. We neglect to burn through cash on programs that would work better. We get overregulation in a few spots, under regulation in others, furthermore, bunches of direction whose sole impact is to secure out of line financial focal points for unique interests. We inflict and propagate foul play. We abandon poor people. We wage medicate wars that ghettoize inward urban areas. We toss an excessive number of individuals behind bars. We base our movement and exchange arrangements on xenophobia and ancient monetary speculations. Voting is ethically significant. Voting changes the quality, scope, and sort of government.

Medical Administration Records Sheet (MARS) Essay

Medical Administration Records Sheet (MARS) - Essay Example The chart itself varies from one hospital to the other. However there are basic components that must be included in whichever hospital or country. The obvious components are the patient’s name, patient medical record, ward and bed number where the patient was confined, the details of the treating team, and other variables like weight. All these are recorded on the demographics part. There is also a prescription part which records the name of the drug, the strength of the dosage, the route which can be either liquid or solid drugs, the frequency of the drugs administered, diagnosis, the details of the prescribing doctor and his signature. The most important benefit of keeping a medical administration record is of course for future reference. This means that if the patient comes back with the same or different complications the health care professional can always refer to the record to know what the patient had been diagnosed of in the last check-up. This would help a great deal in the present diagnosis. The health care professional may be able to determine if the present problem is a complication of the past problem or rather if it is associated or if the case is totally different. If the cases are related the health care professional may change the drugs or the dosages as some patients react different on different dosages and drugs. Some drugs would also not be compatible with others administered later thus it is important to always have a record of the past dosages so as to ensure what is administered later is compatible with the drugs formerly administered. Another importance of the medical administration record is to hold the health care professional for any medical treatment that he gives to a patient. As a professional the medical health care professional owes a duty of care to the patient. The health professional must do all that a reasonable person in his professional would do to cure the patient or to prevent

Headquarters Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Headquarters - Essay Example l built and superior cars that have, in return, drawn the attention of numerous customers in the world market and, has also retained the loyalty of the existing buyers. The high quality vehicles have, therefore, led to the annual increase in sale and hence profit growth. BMW models exist in different sizes. Since it deals with the manufacture of cars, this company is likely to procure materials such as metals, rubber, hammers, glasses, leather, mirrors, paints, fuel, overalls, stationery, wet cells and the necessary tools for the assemblage of the cars. Some of the misconceptions that may come into play in this German company is all the private sector companies have similar terms and conditions when contracting a dealer. This misconception may create a dispute between BMW and the supplier of it raw materials, leading to the termination of a contract. The misconception on terms and conditions may create a disagreement with the international customers. However, the reality is that ther e has never been universal or global set of terms and conditions that govern all private companies during

How Internet Has Changed People Essay Example for Free

How Internet Has Changed People Essay The Internet has changed a lot over the year and a lot of people really dont talk to each other anymore instead they talk either on Facebook or another Internet site. With all the things that you can do most families really dont spend any time with each other anymore because everyone is doing something on the Internet. Now a day’s people can log on the Internet where ever they are. Because the internet decreases face to face interaction, makes it easier to retreat into a cyber-world, and vastly polarizes opinions and minimizes basic etiquette, the internet has done much to divide the global population, rather than connect it. About 86 percent of the world population uses the internet on a daily bases. Over the years Internet has decreased face to face interaction quite a bit. Now days if someone want to talk to someone they will just video chat with them over the Internet on apple devices, cell phones, computers, and Xbox. Also when someone wants write someone else they dont get out paper and pen they go on the Internet and email them. Now days it is much easier to retreat into a cyber-world, than it is to retreat in this to in the real world. Social websites like Facebook and twitter have made people a whole lot less social than they were years ago. The average Facebook user creates 90 pieces of content every month! Internet has done so much to divide the global population, rather than connect it. Instead of families spend quality time with each other they are all in different rooms on the Internet doing different things. I have noticed over the years that a lot of people have become more depend on the internet that they don’t know what they would do without it. A lot of things for schools are now on the internet like for my math class everything is online and very little on paper. Now days most parents don’t see their kids because they are usually in their room on the internet doing different things like either video chatting, play a game online, or online chat rooms. According to Pewresearch.org â€Å"A new Pew Internet Project report reveals that 93% of teen’s ages 12†17 go online, as do 93% of young adult’s ages 18†29.† Today every teenage has their own TV, computer, and other electronic devices just in their room. A lot of people think that they need their cell phones or their computers and they don’t know what to do when it dies when the power is out. They think that it is the end of the world when either their phone dies or their computer dies when they power is out. Peoples are lost without the internet. Devices that have internet access are addicting and people sometimes don’t know when to stop. The internet has come a long way since it started and now everything is online from banking to emailing and lots of other things. A lot of education is on the internet more and more each year, for example if you need help and don’t know how to do a math problem and you don’t want to leave your house you can just search the internet for an online tutor. 107 trillion emails sent in 2010 and many more since then. People are now dating other people over the internet, instead of meeting each other the old fashion way. With online chat rooms you can talk to someone that is in a whole different country and not even know that. Individuals are becoming less independent on families than they were before. According to SocialMediaToday.com writer Tim Patterson, Facebook has 518 million users. I think that the internet is making people a whole lot less social than they were before the internet started. My family can be so caught up in what we are doing on the internet that forgets that one another are even home. I think that people should spend less time on the internet and more time with their families. According to InternetWorldStats.com in 2010 the United States Internet Users the top 5 states are California (29.8 million users), Texas (17.2 million users), New York (16.1 million users), Florida (14.8 million users), and Illinois (10.2 million users).

The Terror Management Theory Essay -- Psychology, Fear of Death

Many may agree with the old saying that â€Å"beauty is only skin deep,† but does beauty come in a particular shade of color? This question is very debatable for many, but the fact of the matter is that human beings are born in array of skin tones. These differences in skin tone are used to categorize people into different ethnic groups. Lopez proposes thatâ€Å"ethnic identity is a type of group identity that is related to a better outcome because it provides a sense of belonging or cultural embeddedness.†(p.102) Dr. Ronald Hall (2006) suggests that in America minorities or people of color are called black in relative terms to the majority who are of European descent i.e. white. Some studies have discovered that a more â€Å"ethnic appearance† is usually assessed by a darker skin color i.e, black and is associated with a worse outcome in life (Lopez, 2008) In contrast, beauty, wealth and overall appeal are associated with physiological proximity to the white p ower structure i.e., light skin. (Hall, 2006) It appears as though desirable skin complexions are culturally relative. The terror management theory is a motivational theory which speculates that human beings have an underlying fear of death. These feelings are managed within that person by developing or maintaining a two- part cultural anxiety buffer; an individual worldview and a sense of self value or self-esteem. (Pyszczynski,Greenberg, & Solomon, 1997) According to the theory, high self-esteem reflects the successful participation in and internalization of meaningful cultural worldview. (Schmeichel, Gailliot, Filardo, MrGregor, Gitter, &Baumeister 2009) Goldenberg and Shakelford (2005) suggested that â€Å"the need for self-esteem is often seen as the master motive that underlies much o... ...ive. Those who engage themselves in processes such as tanning or skin bleaching do so to help boost their self-esteem. From the perspective of the terror management theory, individuals are motivated to live up to cultural standards because doing so grants self-esteem. The boost in self-esteem acts as a buffer for potential anxiety relative to awareness of personal immortality. (Cox et al., 2009) TMT determines that people aim to live up to social standards in order deal with personal insecurities about dying. If a psychological structure provides protection from thoughts about death, then reminding people of death will increase the need for that structure. (Goldenberg, Pyzszcsynski, Greenberg,Solomon, Kluck, &Cornwall, 2001) Within terms of this study, it is speculated that as mortality salience increases, so does an individual’s need to alter his own skin color.

Piano Industry, Prp

Porter Five Forces: The piano industry. Threat of substitute products or services: LOW A portable keyboard can be regarded as a substitute but those interested in buying a piano are interested in superior sound, better performance, good looks and elegance. The keyboard has none of these. It is complicated to sell a piano and move it in order to put a keyboard. Threat of new competition: MEDIUM-LOW The capital investment in a piano factory is very high. The market already is filled with competitors that dominate the global market. Brand recognition is also a hard asset to aquire in the piano industry. Pianos are a luxury product that could make an entrant suffer a lot in the even of an economic downturn. Other local Chinese piano manufacturers could potentially become significant competition. Bargaining power of customers: HIGH A piano is a high end product with many different brand offerings. Customers have a large bargaining power driving the margins down. PRP has made this clear by driving prices down by offering a good product at a better price. Bargaining power of suppliers: LOW The suppliers hold no proprietary materials that the piano makers require. Most of the materials are commodity products such as wood and those that are more developed like keys are becoming easier to manufacture in house due to the drop in ease and cost of the machinery required to do so. Intensity of competitive rivalry: HIGH The entrance of companies such as PRP is evidence of the incredibly competitive market the piano industry is. New drastic tactics and strategies like sponsored players that can only use their products in their performances or manufacturing outside their usual territories into asian sites also shows the competitive nature of the business.

Environmental Toxicology

Introduction to Environmental Toxicology A lecture by Dr Rick Leah (Long version of Notes prepared by Dr R T Leah, Biological Sciences, University of Liverpool but including material summarized and adapted from various locations on the www*) Aims The impact of toxic chemicals on wildlife and humans has been of great concern for the last fifty years. Unfortunately this is a very large, complex subject area which can only be covered superficially within the time available.However, this lecture is intended to give an introduction to fundamental aspects of how some pollutants interact with living organisms to cause deleterious effects. The complexity will be explained and simplified where possible. You should understand at least a little about the biology of key organisms and how pollutants cause damage at a physiological level. You should be aware of how pollutants can induce change in organisms which can be used as a ‘biomarker’ of the presence and action of the pollutants (although this will form the subject of a later lecture in this course).Thus as the main outcome of this lecture you should have an appreciation of the wide range of contemporary issues that are caused by toxic chemicals in the environment and what regulatory authorities are doing to monitor and control them. You should understand the main hazards that toxic chemicals pose and how risk to humans and wildlife is controlled. You should be aware of the main groups of pollutants of contemporary concern.The material covered will be useful for the consideration of two case studies on the impact of toxic chemicals in the Great Lakes of North America and the Baltic Sea in later lectures. [pic] Environmental Toxicology or Ecotoxicology? [pic] Introduction It was after World War II that increasing concern about the impact of toxic chemicals on the environment led Toxicology to expand from the study of toxic impacts of chemicals on man to that of toxic impacts on the environment. This subject became known as Environmental Toxicology.Ecotoxicology is a relatively new discipline and was first defined by Rene Truhaut in 1969. It attempts to combine two very different subjects: ecology (â€Å"the scientific study of interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms† Krebs 1985) and toxicology (â€Å"the study of injurious effects of substances on living organisms†, usually man). In toxicology the organisms sets the limit of the investigation whereas Ecotoxicology aspires to assess the impact of chemicals not only on individuals but also on populations and whole ecosystems.During the early years, the major tools of Environmental Toxicology were: detection of toxic residues in the environment or in individual organisms and testing for the toxicity of chemicals on animals other than man. It was however, a very big jump in understanding from an experimental animal to a complex, multivariate environment and the subject of ECOTOXICOLOGY develop ed from the need to measure and predict the impact of pollutants on populations, communities and whole ecosystems rather than on individuals.There is an on-going debate as to the exact scope and definition of ecotoxicology. The simplest definition found to date is that ecotoxicology is â€Å"the study of the harmful effects of chemicals upon ecosystems† (Walker et al, 1996). A more complete definition of Ecotoxicology comes from Forbes & Forbes 1994 â€Å"the field of study which integrates the ecological and toxicological effects of chemical pollutants on populations, communities and ecosystems with the fate (Transport, transformation and breakdown) of such pollutants in the environment†. nd several books have been written recently which discuss this in some depth, these include: Cairns, J Jr & Niederlehner B R (1994) Ecological Toxicity Testing. CRC Press Inc: Boca Raton Forbes, V E & Forbes T L (1994) Ecotoxicology in Theory and Practice. Chapman & Hall Ecotoxicolog y Series 2: London. Walker C H, Hopkin S P, Sibly R M & Peakall, D B (1996) Principles of Ecotoxicology. Taylor & Francis: London There are three main objectives in ecotoxicology (Forbes & Forbes 1994): †¢ obtaining data for risk assessment and environmental management. meeting the legal requirements for the development and release of new chemicals into the environment. †¢ developing empirical or theoretical principles to improve knowledge of the behaviour and effects of chemicals in living systems. (More information about the highlighted terms used below can be found in the Definitions section. ) In order to achieve these objectives, the main areas of study are: The distribution of POLLUTANTS in the environment, their entry, movement, storage and transformation within the environment.The effects of pollutants on living organisms. At an individual level, TOXICANTS may disrupt the biochemical, molecular and physiological structure and function which will in turn have conseq uences for the structure and function of communities and ecosystems. At the population level it may be possible to detect changes in the numbers of individuals, in gene frequency (as in resistance of insects to insecticides) or changes in ecosystem function (e. g. soil nitrification) which are attributable to pollution.It may be possible to use BIOMARKERS to establish that a natural population has been exposed to pollution and these can provide a valuable guide to whether or not a natural population is at risk or in need of further investigation. For the purposes of the Regulation and Registration of chemicals the toxicity of individual chemicals is principally investigated via TOXICITY TESTING, the main tool of which is the Standard Toxicity Test (STT) which usually tests the DOSE or CONCENTRATION of a particular chemical that is toxic to under controlled, laboratory conditions.Toxicity tests are mainly carried out using individual animals although there has been a move towards the use of more complex systems known as MESOCOSMS. In some situations, particularly in the case of pesticides, it may be possible to carry out FIELD TRIALS to assess toxicity. Toxicity data are used to make assessments of the HAZARD and the RISK posed by a particular chemical. [pic] Significant Issues with Chemicals that have driven the development of Ecotoxicology [pic] 1. DDT – around the world 2. Cadmium in Japan 3. Mercury in Japan 4. PCBs in Japan and Taiwan 5.Dioxins – various 6. The contamination of pristine environments (eg Arctic) by atmospheric transport of organohalogens Most workers in the field of ecotoxicology refer to the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) as a landmark in the public’s awareness of potential damage to human and environmental health from man-made toxic substances. According to Rodricks (1992), Carson’s book â€Å"almost single-handedly created modern society’s fears about synthetic chemicals in the environment and, among other things, fostered renewed interest in the science of toxicology†.Certainly the consolidation of academic and related pursuits into the study of toxic substances in the environment dates from about the same time as the publication of Silent Spring. Prior to the 1960s, there were no coordinated programmes in research, in education or in regulation that systematically addressed toxic substances in the environment. Considerable progress has been made in all these areas during the past four decades. Fate of chemicals in the environment and within organisms As ecotoxicologists we are concerned with the movement and fate of toxic chemicals at both the organism level and that of the whole ecosystem.The relevant issues are: †¢ the source, †¢ transport, †¢ modification and †¢ final fate of the pollutants. At the organism level we need to be concerned with †¢ Uptake †¢ Excretion †¢ Sites of action, metabolism or storage T oxicity testing and the regulation and release of toxic chemicals As ecotoxicology largely arose from toxicology and the need to regulate the introduction of potentially toxic chemicals into the environment, toxicity testing remains central to the subject today. Most toxicity testing for pollutants is still based on tests on individual organisms in artificial test situations (see list of examples in next section).These tests are cheap, reliable and easy to perform but there is much debate about the relevance of many standard toxicity tests to ‘real life'. Initially in the early days of environmental toxicology the concept of the ‘most sensitive species' was used to relate the results of toxicity tests to the ‘real world'. Certain species in a particular community were assessed as being ‘most sensitive' to pollutants. The logic was that if a pollutant was non-toxic to the ‘most sensitive' species then it would be safe for the rest of the community.Essent ially, this logic remains today – the results of tests on single species, in artificial situations are extrapolated to predict the effects of pollutants on whole communities or ecosystems. It is assumed that if you have enough information about the effects of a pollutant on the parts of an ecosystem, then you can assemble the effects on the whole. There is however, some question about the usefulness of extrapolating from simple, highly artificial, single-species toxicity tests to complex, multi-variate ecosystems.Forbes & Forbes (1994) argue that â€Å"understanding and predicting the consequences of pollutant-induced effects on ecosystems requires that the effects be examined at the level of interest† i. e. the population, community or ecosystem. This debate has been the source of much division in ecotoxicology, between the Applied, often Industrial, Ecotoxicologists concerned with the practicalities of chemical registration and testing and the Pure or Academic Ecotox icologists who regard many toxicity testing regimes as inappropriate or at worst useless.Unfortunately, never the twain shall meet and the level of communication between the two camps has not been great. A fictional exchange makes the point well (from Forbes & Forbes 1994): â€Å"Academic Ecotoxicologist: Single species acute toxicity tests are too simplistic and have no connection with what is really going on out in nature. These standard tests are not only irrelevant and a waste of time, they may in fact do more harm than good if they lead us to believe that we can use them to adequately protect the environment when in fact we cannot.Industrial Ecotoxicologist: These tests may be oversimplified, but they are also cost-efficient, easy to perform, the procedures have been worked out, and the fact is they are required by government. We have absolutely no incentive to do more than is required by law, and, frankly, you have given us little hard evidence that current test procedures do fail to protect the environment adequately. Government Ecotoxicologist: Do you have any idea of the number of new chemicals that we have to assess each year?We can't tell industry to stop producing new chemicals and we can't wait until we understand the whole system before we try to protect it. If you think current procedures fail, then come up with some better tests – which must of course be simple, cheap and fast. Academic Ecotoxicologist: (Pause) †¦ Well, it's very complex, and of course I'll need much more data before I can give you an answer. But those single-species acute tests are oversimplified and have no connection with what is really going on out in the field †¦ Government Ecotoxicologist: We need tests! Give us tests! â€Å"The way forward for Ecotoxicology must be to integrate its two halves much more fully. Toxicity testing, using single species, do provide useful information and will almost certainly remain central to the regulation and registration of toxic chemicals but much can be done to expand the scope of toxicity testing, to add tests that apply to higher levels of organisation and so increase their relevance to the communities and ecosystems that are being protected. Testing methodologies An extensive range of ecotoxicological and biodegradation tests are required for the chemical, agrochemical and pharmaceutical industries.The tests often used include: †¢ Bacterial toxicity tests †¢ Algal Growth tests with a variety of species †¢ Acute toxicity tests with Lemna minor †¢ Acute and Reproduction tests in Daphnia magna †¢ Acute toxicity tests with the marine copepod Acartia tonsa †¢ Oyster embryo larval toxicity test †¢ Acute toxicity test with the marine invertebrate Mysidopsis bahia †¢ Earthworm toxicity tests †¢ Toxicity Tests with sediment dwelling organisms such as Chironomus or Lumbriculus †¢ Acute toxicity tests with freshwater and marine fish †¢ Bioaccumulatio n in fish †¢ Fish growth tests Early Life Cycle tests with fish Algal tests Several freshwater species are routinely tested. The most commonly used are Scenedesmus subspicatus and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. Other species used include Navicula Pelliculosa. Skeletonema costatum is the marine species preferred by most regulatory bodies. Electronic particle counters and size distribution analysers are used to monitor the growth of algae in the studies. Lemna is a useful substitute for higher plants. Invertebrate Tests Acute and reproduction studies are routinely conducted with Daphnia magna.Acute tests with other species are also available including the marine copepod Acartia tonsa, the freshwater sediment dwelling species Chironomus riparius or Lumbirculus variegatus and the amphipod Gammarus pulex. Fish Acute tests are conducted under static, semi-static or flow-through conditions. The choice of test regime is dependent upon the chemical properties. Tests using species comm only encountered wild in the UK are rare as most tests are conducted using species adapted for life in the laboratory including: The species used include: †¢ Rainbow trout †¢ Common carp Golden orfe †¢ Bluegill sunfish †¢ Fathead minnow †¢ Japanese killifish †¢ Zebra fish Studies can also be conducted using marine species such as Turbot and Sheepshead minnow. Definitions used in Ecotoxicology Some of the terms used in ecotoxicology, such as LD50, have simple, widely accepted definitions and hence can be defined here with some confidence. Others however vary quite widely in their interpretation from one text to another. I have tried to indicate these below and can only suggest that the reader refer carefully to the introduction of the text they are using.Where there is likely to be some contradiction I have listed the reference for the definitions given. [pic] ECOTOXICOLOGY †¢ is concerned with the toxic effects of chemical and physical agents on li ving organisms, especially on populations and communities within defined ecosystems: it includes the transfer pathways of those agents and their interactions with the environment. Butler, 1978. †¢ investigates the effects of substances on organisms. The hazard to animal and plant populations can be determined by using survey data (retrospective) or by performing specific tests (prospective).Rudolph & Boje, 1986. †¢ the science that seeks to predict the impacts of chemicals on ecosystems. Levin et al 1989. †¢ the study of harmful effects of chemicals upon ecosystems. Walker et al 1996. [pic] POLLUTANT or CONTAMINANT, XENOBIOTIC or ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL? Variations of use of these terms are commonplace. â€Å"Environmental chemical† may be used to describe simply any chemical that occurs in the environment (Walker et al 1996) or substances which enter the environment as a result of human activity or occur in higher concentrations than they would in nature (Rombk e & Moltmann 1995).The terms contaminant and pollutant can be described separately but are often used as synonyms. Both words are used to describe chemicals that are found at levels judged to be above those that would normally be expected. â€Å"Pollutants† carries the connotation of the potential to cause harm, whereas contaminants are not by definition harmful. This is however, not an easy distinction to make. Whether or not a contaminant is a pollutant may depend on its level in the environment and the organism or system being considered, thus one particular substance may be a contaminant relative to one species but pollutant relative to another.Finally, in practice it is often difficult to demonstrate that harm is not being caused so that in effect pollutant and contaminant become synonymous. (Walker et al 1996). Xenobiotic is used to describe compounds that are ‘foreign' to a particular organism, that is they do not play a part in their normal biochemistry. A chemi cal that is normal to one organism may be foreign to another and so xenobiotics may be naturally occurring as well as man-made compounds (Walker et al 1996). The term Xenobiotic is sometimes also used in a more general sense to describe â€Å"foreign substances† in the environment (Rombke & Moltmann 1995). [pic]HARM or DAMAGE? Biological systems are resilient to harm caused by adverse factors in the environment since they are able to adapt to some insults. There is a fundamental difference in viewpoint between these two words, one defines harm as an effect regardless of any biological compensation that the population might make, the other defines damage as occurring only if there is an effect subsequent to any compensation. harm: biochemical or physical changes which adversely affect individual organisms' birth, growth or mortality rates. Such changes would necessarily produce population declines were it not that other processes may compensate. Walker et al 1996). damage: â⠂¬Å"the interaction between a substance and a biological system. The substance's potential to cause damage is weighed against the protective potential inherent in the biological system (e. g. excretion or metabolic reactions, adaptation or regeneration)† (Rombke & Moltmann 1995). [pic] ENDPOINTS, DOSE and CONCENTRATION There are many different ways in which toxicity can be measured but they are usually assessed relative to a particular outcome or END POINT. Initially, most Toxicity Tests measured the number of organisms killed by a particular DOSE or CONCENTRATION of the chemical being tested.With terrestrial animals the DOSE of chemical (taken orally, applied to the skin or injected) administered is usually recorded. DOSE is usually used where the dietary dose of a test chemical can be accurately determined. For aquatic organisms or where the test chemical is dosed into the surrounding medium, the tests usually measure the CONCENTRATION of chemical in the surrounding water/me dium. The following measures, known as a group as EDs or ECs (Effective Doses or Effective Concentrations) are frequently used to describe data from toxicity tests: LD50Median lethal dose, that is the dose that kills 50% of the population LC50 Median lethal concentration. ED50/EC50 Median effect dose/concentration, that is the dose that produced a defined effect to 50% of the population. NOED/NOEC No Observed Effect Dose (or Concentration) NOEL No Observed Effect Level. Sometimes this more general term is used to describe either of the above. It can be defined as the highest level (that is dose or concentration) of the test chemical that does not cause a statistically significant difference from the control. LOED/LOE Lowest Observed Effect Dose (or Concentration)There has been a move away from the use of lethal end points in toxicity testing towards the measurement of EFFECTS rather than death. Examples of EFFECTS which can be used include changes in: reproduction (eg. number of egg s laid or young hatched); growth (e. g. biomass or body length) and biochemical or physiological effects (e. g. enzyme synthesis or respiration). [pic] HAZARD AND RISK Toxicity data is used to make assessments of the HAZARD and the RISK posed by a particular chemical. Where: HAZARD is the potential to cause harm RISK is the probability that harm will be caused.Defining HAZARD involves answering two questions, ‘how much damage are we prepared to tolerate' and ‘how much proof is enough'. The first is a question for society, alleviating/avoiding/repairing damage involves costs, how much are we prepared to pay? The second is largely a scientific problem of providing sufficient evidence that damage is due to pollution. HAZARD is not necessarily directly related to toxicity, it is a product of exposure and toxicity, a compound with moderate toxicity but very high exposure may cause more damage that a very toxic chemical with very low exposure.RISK is usually defined using the predicted environmental concentration (PEC) and the predicted environmental no effect concentration (PNEC). Information on the movement and behaviour of pollutants in the environment are used to calculate the PEC whereas data from Toxicity Testing must be extrapolated to calculate the PNEC. The making of these calculations is not a precise art, apart from doubts about the extrapolation of Toxicity data from the lab to the field it can be very difficult to estimate the degree of exposure, particularly for mobile taxa such as birds and mammals. [pic]BIOMARKERS A Biomarker can be defined as a â€Å"biological response to a chemical or chemicals that gives a measure of exposure and sometimes, also, of toxic effect† (Walker et al 1996), they can be divided into biomarkers of exposure and of toxic effect. Examples of biomarkers range from the inhibition of AChE (acetylcholinesterase) in the nervous system of animals to the thinning of eggshells in birds. Biomarkers can help to brid ge the gap between the laboratory and the field by giving direct evidence of whether or not a particular animal, plant or ecosystem is being affected by pollution.They will often provide more reliable evidence of exposure than measurements of the pollutants themselves in the environment, the latter are often short-lived and difficult to detect, whereas their effects (detectable via biomarkers) may be much longer-term. [pic] A QUESTION OF SCALE AND ACCURACY The difficulty in extrapolating from simple, highly artificial, single-species toxicity tests to complex, multi-variate ecosystems has led to attempts to develop more complex systems which can be used in toxicity tests.Such systems are usually termed microcosms, mesocosms or macrocosms, that is small, medium or large multispecies systems. It must be possible to control conditions in these systems to such an extent that they can provide meaningful, reproducible (that is, the system could be accurately copied elsewhere), replicable (that is, two replicates of the same experiment would produce the same results) data in toxicity tests. Simply because they are more complex systems it is seldom possible to produce tests that are as precise and controlled as those carried out in single species STTs.However, despite their limitations these larger-scale tests can provide important insights into the effect of pollutants on whole systems rather than on single species. [pic] MIXTURES OF CHEMICALS, ADDITION OR MULTIPLICATION? In natural systems, organisms are often (usually) exposed to more than one pollutant at the same time. However, regulatory authorities usually assume – unless there is evidence to the contrary – that the toxicity of combinations of chemicals is roughly additive.Fortunately in many cases this is quite correct but in some cases, toxicity is more than additive in that is there is POTENTIATION of toxicity. One particular type of potentiation called SYNERGISM occurs where the effect of two or more chemicals combine to have greater impact than expected from their individual concentrations. [pic] Ecotoxicology – Pesticide Definitions [pic] What is a pesticide? A literal definition of a pesticide would be â€Å"a killer of pests†. In practice pesticides are no longer aimed exclusively at killing the pests they are used to control and the term has acquired a rather wider meaning uch as â€Å"the chemical tools used to manage all kinds of pests† or in the US it's more official definition is â€Å"any substance used for controlling, preventing destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest† (all definitions from Ware 1991). Hence pesticides include not only those chemicals which kill the pest they are used against but also those such as insect chemosterilants or plant and insect growth regulators which control pest populations without necessarily, physically, killing the pests they come into contact with.Pesticides have been divided into many diffe rent classes. Firstly, according to the target organism that they control, so insect-icides kill (or control) insects, rodent-icides control rodents etc. The -icide suffix has been widely used in the past, as shown in Table 1, but relatively few of these terms are in common use today. Secondly, pesticides can be classified according to their mode of action, that is the way in which they act on the pest population, e. g. attractants, repellents, chemosterilants etc.Finally, the definition of a pesticide has been widened once again to: â€Å"pesticides are used by man as intentional additions to his environment in order to improve environmental quality for himself, his animals or his plants† (Ware 1991). This definition allows the inclusion of 2 new classes of treatment. Firstly those such as plant growth regulators, which are not only used as herbicides to control weeds, but also to control directly the growth of the crop and hence improve its success.For instance, they are us ed to reduce the growth of cereals so that they do not become too tall and prone to ‘lodging' before harvest. Secondly, microbial pesticides which are not based on a chemical but on bacteria, fungi, nematodes and viruses which attack the pest. [pic] Table 1 Classes of pesticide according to : A. the target organism and B. pesticide mode of action. After Ware (1991). |CLASS |FUNCTION | |A.By Target Organism   | |acaricide |kills/controls mites | |algicide |kills/controls algae | |avicide |kills/controls or repels birds | |bactericide |kills/controls bacteria | |fungicide |kills/controls fungi | |herbicide |kills/controls plants | |insecticide |kills/controls insects | |larvicide |kills/controls larvae (usually mosquitoes) | |miticide |kills/controls mites | |molluscicide |kills/controls snails & slugs.May include oysters, clams, & mussels | |nematicide |kills/controls nematodes | |ovicide |kills/controls eggs | |pediculicide |kills/controls lice | |piscicide |kills/c ontrols fish | |predicide |kills/controls predators (usually such as coyotes) | |rodenticide |kills/controls rodents | |silvicide |kills/controls trees & brush | |slimicide |kills/controls slime | termiticide |kills/controls termites | |B. By Mode of Action – by affect on pest   | |attractants/pheromones |Attract animals, especially insects usually into traps. Often sexual pheromones. | |chemosterilants |Sterilise insects or vertebrates (birds, rodents). Usually sterilise males. | |defoliants |Remove leaves. | |desiccants |Speed drying of plants. Used not only to kill weeds but also as pre-harvest desiccants to make harvesting | | |easier. |disinfectants |Kill or inactivate harmful micro-organisms | |feeding stimulants |Cause insects to feed more vigorously | |growth regulators |Stimulate or retard plant or insect growth. Natural or artificial hormones used not only to kill weed species | | |but also to protect crops such as cereals from lodging. | |repellents |Repel insects, mites, ticks or pest vertebrates (dogs, rabbits, deer, birds). | |B. By Mode of Action – by timing of application | |curative (fungicides) |applied to the plant after initial infection. |eradicant (fungicides) |applied when disease symptoms have already become visible, often to prevent the spread of disease. | |protectant (fungicides) |applied to the plant surface before infection. | |pre-plant or pre-sowing |applied before crop is sown or planted | |(herbicides) | | |pre-emergence (herbicides) |applied before the crop has germinated | |post-emergence(herbicides) |applied after the crop has germinated | |B.By Mode of Action – by selectivity | |the degree to which a pesticide discriminates between target and non-target organisms. | |selective |A selective pesticide effects a very narrow range of species other than the target pest or may be. The chemical | | |itself may be selective in that it does not affect non-target species or it may be used selectively in such a | | |way that non-target species do not come into contact with it. | |non-selective |a non-selective pesticide kills a very wide range of plants, insects, fungi etc. | |B.By Mode of Action – by site of interaction with pest | |systemic |the pesticide is absorbed by the pest and moves around within the pest system to reach parts of the pest remote | | |from the point of application | |contact |contact pesticides directly affect the parts of the plant, insect, fungus etc to which they are applied. They | | |cause localised damage to the plant or animal tissue on contact. | References Barlow, F (1985) Chemistry and formulation. In: Pesticide Application: Principles and Practice. Ed: P T Haskell. Oxford Science Publications: Oxford. pp 1-34. Dent, D R (1995) Integrated Pest Management.Chapman & Hall: London, Glasgow, Weinheim, New York, Todyo, Melbourne, Madras. Rombke, J & J M Moltmann (1995) Applied Ecotoxicology. Lewis Publishers: Boca Raton, New York, London, Tokyo. Wa re, G W (1991) Fundamentals of Pesticides. A self-instruction guide. Thomson Publications: Fresno USA. [pic] Ecotoxicology – Pesticide Classification – Insecticides [pic] While pesticides can be divided into many classes by target organism, mode of action etc for most purposes chemical pesticides are divided into three major groups according to their target organism, that is: insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. These groups are then subdivided into chemical groups such as organophosphates, organochlorines, carbamates etc.This simplified classification effectively groups acaricides, nematicides and molluscicides in with insecticides as many chemicals that have acaricidal, nematocidal or molluscicidal properties are also insecticidal. The current proliferation of chemical insecticides dates from World War II, until this time the insecticides available were based on: arsenicals, petroleum oils, sulphur, hydrogen cyanide gas, cryolite and on extracts from plants such as pyrethrum, nicotine and rotenone. Table 2: Classification of Insecticides gives a summary of the main chemical classes of insecticide and the main chemicals in each class. The characteristics of the main classes of insecticide: the organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids are summarised below. Organochlorines Also called: chlorinated hydrocarbonsA large and varied group that has a particularly high public profile because of the environmental problems they have caused. They were mostly discovered in 1942-56 and were very important in the early success of synthetic insecticides. They are mostly Insecticides with a very wide range of actions, they can be divided into three main groups: DDT and related compounds including rhothane (DDD) and methoxychlor. Widely used during World War II for control of disease vectors (such as mosquitoes) and subsequently much used on agricultural pests such as ectoparasites of farm animals and insect disease vectors and also widel y used against insects in domestic and industrial premises. chlorinated cyclodiene insecticides such as aldrin, dieldrin and heptachlor. ost widely used as seed dressings and soil insecticides. hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), such as lindane used against pests and parasites of farm animals, also in insecticidal seed dressings. Organochlorine insecticides are very stable solids with: limited vapour pressure, very low water solubility and high lipophilicity. They may be very persistent in their original form or as stable metabolites. They tend to be stored in body fats and are particularly hazardous because they are so stable and tend to accumulate in successive organisms in the food chain. DDT and the HCHs a regarded as only moderately toxic to mammals while the chlorinated cyclodienes are highly toxic.Action: all organochlorine insecticides are nerve poisons but DDT has a different action to the chlorinated cyclodienes and HCHs. DDT acts on the sodium channels in the nervous system s o that the passage of an ‘action potential' along the nerve is disrupted. It causes uncontrolled repetitive spontaneous discharges along the nerve. Uncoordinated muscle tremors and twitches are characteristic symptoms. The chlorinated cyclodienes and HCHs act on the GABA receptors which function as a channel for Cl – ions through the nerve membranes. They bind to the GABA receptors and reduce the flow of Cl – ions. Typical symptoms include convulsions. Organophosphates Also called: organic esters of phosphorus acid.Such as bromophos, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, dichlorvos, fenitrothion, malathion, parathion and phorate. The same basic constituents are combined with many additional chemicals to give a wide range of products with very different properties. Organophosphates were developed during the second world war and have two main uses: as insecticides and as nerve gases (chemical warfare agents). They are mostly liquids, liphophilic, with some volatility and a few a re solids. Generally, they are less stable and more readily broken down than organochlorines and are relatively short-lived in the environment, hence most of their hazard is associated with short-term (acute) toxicity.The water solubility of the various organophosphate compounds is very variable and they are prepared in numerous formulations: as emulsifiable concentrates for spraying and to control ectoparasites of farm animals (particularly sheep dips) and sometimes internal parasites (such as ox warble fly); as seed dressings and as granular formulations particularly used for the most toxic organophosphates (e. g. disyston and phorate) as the active ingredient is effectively ‘locked up' in the granule and is safer to handle and only slowly released into the environment. Organophosphates are also used to control vertebrate pests such as Quelea in Africa. Action: like organochlorines, organophosphates also act as a neurotoxin. They combine with the enzyme acetylcholinesterase and prevent conduction of nerve impulses at junctions in the nervous system where acetylcholine is the natural transmitter.As a result, acetylcholine builds up in the nerve synapse and eventually leads to synaptic block when the acetylcholine can no longer relay signals across the synapse. In neuro-muscle junctions this leads to tetanus, the muscle is in a fixed state, unable to contract or relax in response to nerve stimulation. Carbamates e. g. aldicarb, carbaryl, carbofuran, methiocarb, methomyl, pirimicarb and propoxur Carbamates are a more recent development than organochlorines or organophosphates, they are all derivatives of carbamic acid. The basic carbamate group is combined with different chemicals to produce insecticides with a wide range of properties (in particular they vary greatly in their water solubility) and actions.Carbamates are not only used as insecticides but also molluscicides and nematicides. Carbamates are also used as herbicides and fungicides but these ha ve a different mode of action and are described elsewhere. Carbamates are mainly used to control insect pests in agriculture and horticulture, they have abroad spectrum of activity and usually act by contact or stomach action although a few possess systemic activity (aldicarb, carbofuran). Action: basically the same as organophosphates, inhibiting the action of acetylcholine at the nerve synapses. Doses of carbamates are not accumulative and carbamate poisoning is more easy to reverse than that caused by organophosphates.They are generally regarded as representing a short-term hazard. Pyrethroids Such as cypermethrin, deltamethrin, permethrin, phenothrin, resmethrin. Pyrethrin insecticides were developed from naturally occurring chemicals found in the flower heads of Chrysanthenum sp. and these provided the model for the production of synthetic pyrethroid insecticides. Pyrethroids are generally more stables than natural pyrethrins. The development of pyrethroids can be traced over 4 main phases (Ware 1991). The first generation allethrin was a synthetic duplicate of a natural pyrethrum, cinerin I. The second generation included bioallethrin, phenothrin, resmethrin and bioresmethrin.These were marginally more effective than natural pyrethrums but were neither effective enough nor photostable enough to be used extensively in agriculture. However, they are still used in pest control formulations for the home. The third generation of pyrethroids included fenvalerate and permethrin which were stable in sunlight and only slightly volatile and could be used successfully in agriculture. Finally, the fourth and current generation of pyrethroids can be used at much lower concentrations (one-fifth to one-tenth) that those in generation 3 and are all photostable. Overall, most pyrethroids are not sufficiently soluble in water to be used a systemic insecticides. They are mainly formulated as emulsifiable concentrates for spraying.They control a wide range of agricultural a nd horticultural insect pests and are used extensively to control insect vectors of disease (e. g. tsetse fly in Africa) Action: pyrethroids are generally solids with very low water solubility and they act as neruotoxins in a very similar way to DDT. They are readily biodegradable but can bind to particles in soils and sediments and can be persistent in these locations. They are particularly toxic to insects as opposed to mammals and birds and the main environmental concerns are over their effects on fish and non-target invertebrates. Table 2: Classification of Insecticides Data from: Whitehead, R (1995) The UK Pesticide Guide. CAB International & BCPC. Chemical group |Compound |Action |Notes | |AMIDINES | | | | |   |amitraz |   |also ACARICIDE | |BOTANICAL | | | | |   |azadirachtin |insect growth regulator |extracted from Neem | |   |nicotine |contact, non-persistent general |extracted from tobacco | | | |purpose, | | |   |pyrethrin |contact, non-persistent |extracted from Pyrethrum | |   |rotenone |contact |extracted from Derris and Lonchocarpus | |CARBAMATES | | | |   |aldicarb |systemic |also NEMATICIDE | |   |bendiocarb |contact & ingested |   | |   |carbaryl |contact |also WORM KILLER, FRUIT THINNER | |   |carbofuran |systemic |also NEMATICIDE | |   |methiocarb |stomach acting |also MOLLUSCICIDE | |   |methomyl |fly bait |   | |   |pirimicarb |contact & fumigant aphids only |   | |   |propoxur |fumigant, maimainly in |   | | | |glasshouses | | |   |thiocarb |pelleted bait |also MOLLUSCICIDE | |ORGANOCHLORINES | | | | |diphenyl aliphatic derivatives |DDT |   |   | |   |rhothane (DDD) |   |   | |benzene derivatives |lindane ? amma HCH |contact, ingested & fumigant |   | |cyclodiene derivatives |aldrin |persistent |UK revoked 1989 | |   |dieldrin |persistent |UK revoked 1989 | |   |endosulfan |contact & ingested |also ACARICIDE | |ORGANOPHOSPHATES | | | | |aliphatic derivatives |dichlorvos |contact , fumigant    | |   |dimethoate |contact, systemic |also ACARICIDE | |   |disulfoton |systemic, granules |   | |   |malathion |contact |also ACARICIDE | |   |phorate |systemic |   | |phenyl derivatives |fenitrothion |contact, broad spectrum |   | |   |parathion |   |   | |heterocyclic derivatives |chlorpyrifos |contact & ingested |also ACARICIDE | |   |diazinon |contact |   | |ORGANOTINS | | | | |   |fenbutatin-oxide |   |ONLY ACARICIDE | |PYRETHROIDS | | | | |generation 1 |allethrin |   |   | |generation 2 |bioresmethrin |contact, residual |also ACARICIDE | |   |phenothrin |contact & ingested |   | |   |resmethrin |contact |   | |   |tetramethrin |contact |   | |generation 3 |fenvalerate |contact |   | |   |permethrin |contact & ingested, broad |   | | | spectrum | | |generation 4 |bifenthrin |contact, residual |also ACARICIDE | |   |cypermethrin |contact & ingested |   | |   |cyfluthrin |   |   | |   |fenpropathrin |contact & ingested |also ACARICIDE | [pic] Ecotoxicology – Pesticide Classification – Herbicides [pic] It is really only in the last 50 years that use of chemical weedkillers or herbicides has become widespread. Prior to this, the control of weeds in crops was carried out largely by manual weeding, crop rotation, ploughing and various ways of stopping weed seeds being dispersed in crop seed. Today, the heavy use of herbicides is confined to those countries that practice highly intensive, mechanised farming.In 1971 it was estimated that more energy was expended on weeding crops than on any other single human task (Brain 1971 ). Herbicides are also used extensively in non-crop and amenity situations such as industrial sites, roadsides, ditch banks, recreational areas etc. Herbicides can be classified in a number of different ways. The main classification used is often according to chemical class but they can also be classified according to their selectivity, the way th at they affect the plant, the timing of application and the area covered by an application. Herbicides are classed as selective if they kill some plant species but not others, for instance they may kill the weeds but not the crop and as non-selective if they kill all vegetation.Herbicides may be intrinsically selective in that they are active against some species of weed but not others but they may also be used selectively, that is in such a way that they only come into contact with the weeds and not the crop. There are two main ways in which herbicides affect the plants they are applied to: contact herbicides kill parts of the plant that they come into contact with. These are generally used against annual weeds and if they are to be effective need complete coverage of the target weed with the chemical. Systemic or translocated herbicides are absorbed either by the roots or foliage of the plant and then move within the plants system to areas remote from the site of application.Trans located herbicides tend to be slower acting than contact ones and while they can be used against annual weeds they are more commonly aimed at perennial weeds. With translocated herbicides a uniform, although not necessarily complete, coverage of the target weeds is necessary. Finally, herbicides can be classified according to the timing of application in relation to the crop they are being used in. Pre-plant, or pre-sowing herbicides must be applied to an area before the crop is planted. Pre-emergence herbicides are applied before the crop has emerged, this may allow an added level of selectivity as a herbicide can be applied to growing weeds while the crop itself is still protected by the oil. Finally, post-emergence herbicides are applied after the crop has emerged from the soil.Again, a level of selectivity may be introduced by applying a germination inhibitor to prevent further germination of weed seeds – after the crop itself has germinated. Phenoxy Herbicides e. g. 2,4- D, MCPA, 2,4,5-T All derivatives of phenoxyalkane carboxylic acids that act as plant growth regulator herbicides. Phenoxy herbicides were the first safe, selective herbicides discovered and they are still used in huge quantities. They act by simulating the action of natural hormones and produce uncoordinated plant growth. Their action is selective as they are toxic to dicotyledonous but not monocotyledonous plants. Hence they can be used to control ‘dicot' weeds (broad leaved weeds) in ‘monocot' crops (e. g. cereals, grass). Their physical properties vary greatly according to formulation.For instance, as alkali salts they are highly water soluble (can be formulated as aqueous solutions) whereas when as simple esters they have low water solubility and are lipophilic (generally formulated as emulsifiable concentrates). The main hazard they present is mainly posed by unwanted spray drift but they have also sometimes been contaminated with the highly toxic compound TCDD (or dioxin). Other related compounds, also with plant growth regulating properties include phenoxypropionic acids (e. g. CMPP) and phenoxybutyric acids (e. g. 2,4DB). Table 3: Classification of Herbicides Data from: Whitehead, R (1995) The UK Pesticide Guide. CAB International & BCPC. Chemical group |Compound |Uptake/action |Persistence |Timing/site of |Other uses | | | | | |application | | |ACETANILIDES | | | | | | |   |alachlor |via roots, |residual |pre/post-emergence |   | | | |translocated | | | | |AMIDES or substituted amides | | | | | | |   |napropamide |   |   |pre-emergence |   | |   |propachlor |   |   |pre-emergence | |BENZOICS or arylaliphatic acids | | | | | | |   |dicamba |translocated |   |soil/foliar |   | |BENZONITRILES or substituted nitriles| | | | | | |   |dichlobenil |   |residual |soil |   | |DIAZINONES | | | | | | |   |bentazone |contact |   |post-emergence |   | |BIPYRIDYLIUMS | | | | | | |   |diquat |contact |non-residual |f oliar |pre-harvest, CROP | | | | | | |DESICCANT | |   |paraquat |contact |non-residual |   |   | |CARBAMATES or carbanilates | | | | | | |   |asulam |translocated |   |foliar |   | |   |chlorpropham |   |residual |soiltubers |POTATO SPROUT SUPPRESSANT| |   |phenmedipham |contact |   |foliar |   | |CHLOROALKANOIC ACIDS or chlorinated | | | | | | |aliphatic acids | | | | | | |   |dalapon |   |persistent |soil? | |DINITROANILINES or nitroanilines | | | | | | |   |pendimethalin |   |residual |pre-emergence, soil|   | |   |trifluralin |   |   |soil-incorporated |   | |HBNs | | | | | | |   |bromoxynil |contact |   |post-emergence |   | |   |ioxynil |contact |   |post-emergence |   | |IMIDAZOLINONES or imidazoles | | | | | | |   |imazapyr |translocated |residual |foliar, soil |   | |   |imazaquin |   |   |   |   | |OXIMES or cyclohexenones | | | | | | |   |cycloxydim |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |   |setho xydim |   |   |post-emergence |   | |PHENOXYACETIC ACIDS | | | | | | |   |MCPA |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |PHENOXYBUTYRIC ACIDS | | | | | | |   |MCPB |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |PHENOXYPROPRIONIC ACIDS | | | | | |   |diclofop-methyl |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |   |fenoxaprop-P-ethyl |   |   |post-emergence |   | |   |fluazifop-P-butyl |   |   |post-emergence |   | |   |mecoprop |translocated |   |   |   | |   |mecoprop-P |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |PHOSPONIC ACIDS or phosphona amino | | | | | | |acids or phosphates | | | | | | |   |glufosinate-ammonium |contact |non-residual |foliar |   | |   |glyphosate |translocated |non-residual |foliar |   | |PICOLINIC ACIDS | | | | | | |   |picloram |translocated |persistent |foliar, soil |   | |PYRIDINOXY ACIDS | | | | | | |   |fluroxypur |   |   |post-emergence |   | |   |triclopyr |   |   |foliar |   | |QUATER NARY AMMONIUM | | | | | | |   |difenzoquat |   |   |post-emergence |   | |SULFONYLUREAS | | | | | |   |metsulfuron-methyl |contact |residual |post-emergence |   | |   |triasulfuron |   |   |post-emergence |   | |THIOCARBAMATES | | | | | | |   |tri-allate |   |   |soil-acting, |   | | | | | |pre-emergence | | |TRIAZINES | | | | | | |   |atrazine |   |residual |pre/post emergence |   | |   |cyanazine |contact |residual |pre-emergence |   | |   |metribuzin |contact |residual |pre-/post-emergence|   | |   |simazine |root uptake |   |soil

A Beginner’s Guide to Alliteration

A Beginner’s Guide to Alliteration A Beginner’s Guide to Alliteration A little alliteration can liven up even the limpest literature. So if you’re not sure what this is, or why that first sentence is full of â€Å"L† words, you may want to check out our guide. We’ll also look at two related poetic techniques: consonance and assonance. What Is Alliteration? Alliteration occurs when we use the same sound repeatedly in a sentence. This is often at the start of a word, but it can also be at the start of a stressed syllable in a word. You may have seen alliteration used in poetry, particularly in tongue twisters. For example, the nursery rhyme â€Å"Peter Piper† uses the letter â€Å"p† alliteratively: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. A peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked. If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, Wheres the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked? This is a case of alliteration where the whole point is to be tricky to say! Why Use Alliteration in Poetry? Usually, poets use alliteration to create a mood in a poem or to give it rhythm. For example, take the first stanza of Edgar Allen Poe’s â€Å"The Raven†: Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore-   Ã‚  Ã‚   While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. â€Å"’Tis some visitor,† I muttered, â€Å"tapping at my chamber door-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Only this and nothing more.† Here, we have multiple cases of alliteration that combine with the rhyme scheme to give the text a strong rhythm and emphasize certain words. Poe does the same throughout the poem. Sometimes, you can also use alliteration to evoke a mood or image. A good example of this is sibilance, which involves the repetition of soft â€Å"S† sounds: The snake slithered silently across the sand. Here, the repetition of â€Å"S† sounds like the hiss of a snake. As such, the sound of the sentence reinforces the image it describes, like in onomatopoeia. Other Uses of Alliteration Many people use alliteration to make language memorable, including in: Company and brand names (e.g., Coca Cola, Dunkin’ Donuts) Slogans (e.g., Jaguar’s â€Å"Don’t dream it. Drive it.†) Titles of books, movies, etc. (e.g., Black Beauty, Doctor Doolittle) Character names (e.g., Mickey Mouse, Peter Parker) In all these cases, the repetition makes the phrase catchier and more striking. Assonance and Consonance Finally, we should look at two techniques related to alliteration: assonance and consonance. These both involve repetition of sounds, but they’re not quite the same as alliteration. Assonance is repetition of vowel sounds. For example, the repetition of â€Å"oo† in â€Å"Your spooky bassoon went boom as I fell through my stool.† Consonance is repetition of consonant sounds in any part of a word, not just at the start. For instance, â€Å"The vegan dog hugged the ugly frog† is consonance but not alliteration. This is because the repeated â€Å"G† occurs in different parts of the words, not just at the start of stressed syllables. You can use assonance and consonance to make writing more rhythmic or memorable. This is especially common in poetry, but, as with alliteration, it is also effective in other contexts.

Using Page and Section Breaks in Microsoft Word

Using Page and Section Breaks in Microsoft Word Using Page and Section Breaks in Microsoft Word When writing a longer paper, like a thesis or PhD dissertation, it makes sense to break the document down into a series of distinct chapters, each starting on a new page. You could, of course, achieve this by simply hitting â€Å"Enter† a bunch of times until a new page appears. But this can make your document look untidy, since any changes you make before the break will cause subsequent text to go out of alignment. A far better option is to use Microsoft Word’s inbuilt page and section breaks. Page Breaks As the name suggests, a â€Å"page break† in Microsoft Word is a break between pages in your document (sometimes life really is that simple). This â€Å"hard break† allows you to edit separate sections of your work without worrying about text shifting around elsewhere. To add a page break in your document, simply: Position the cursor where you want the page break to appear Under the â€Å"Insert† tab, click on the â€Å"Page Break† button Alternatively, you can add a page break by going to the â€Å"Page Layout† tab, clicking on â€Å"Breaks† and selecting â€Å"Page† from the dropdown menu. Voila! Section Breaks Adding a â€Å"section break† to a document allows you to apply different formatting options in different places. This can be useful if you want to use specific headers for different chapters in your dissertation, or different page numbering styles for distinct parts of a document. To add a section break between pages, all you need to do is: Select where you want the section break to appear with the cursor Go to the â€Å"Page Layout† tab and click on â€Å"Breaks† Under â€Å"Section Breaks† in the dropdown menu, select â€Å"Next Page† You can also add a section break in the middle of a page by selecting â€Å"Continuous† from the dropdown menu. This is handy if you want to apply varied formatting to different parts of a single page, such as splitting one half into two columns of text, but generally isn’t required in an academic paper. Once you’ve added section breaks to your document, you can then apply specific formatting options (e.g., page layout, headers, footers, etc.) to particular sections as required. Editing Page and Section Breaks Since you can’t usually see a page or section break (other than by the gap in the document), editing or removing them can be tricky. However, you can make page breaks visible by clicking the â€Å"Show Paragraph Marks† button on the â€Å"Home† tab in Microsoft Word. This will make page and section breaks show up in your document as follows. You can then select, move, delete or edit around these breaks without having to guess where they are!

A Report on Social Marketing Campaign Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

A Report on Social Marketing Campaign - Essay Example The spread of HIV and AIDS is mainly caused by social and health problems, therefore social marketing offers mechanisms for solving such problems through encouraging people to live healthier lifestyles. According to Kotler & Roberto (1989); Rogers (1995), the idea of diffusion and social marketing has been transformed to form strategies for use by the public throughout Asia, Africa, North America and south America. According to the United Nations, in the past two decades 60 million people have been infected by HIV/AIDS and reportedly 20 million deaths have been reported. Ninety-five percent of the infected population presently live in developing countries. The report on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic, UNAIDS (2002) warned that unless prevention and treatment measures are put in place and followed diligently, over 68 million people would die in the next 20 years. Established cases of HIV/AIDS infection have increased in occurrence throughout different region and numerous countries repor t severe HIV epidemics amongst injecting drug users (IDUs). The countries with high frequency of HIV infections among IDUs are Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, Nepal, Malaysia, Vietnam, China, India and Iran. Justification One of the major HIV/AIDS epidemic accelerants is the drug abuse and misuse. The major barrier in the fight against new HIV infections, recent drug use and emerging responses is the limited up-to date information on the magnitude of the problem. Reports across several countries on the number of HIV infection cases show drastic increase among IDUs. Countries in transition and especially developing countries are extremely susceptible to drug abuse and the risks associated therewith, piling serious burden on already frail health and social facilities. UNAIDS (2002) and WHO (2004) state that there was and still is the potential for a main outbreak of HIV among the IDUs particularly in Russia and bordering countries in the Eastern Europe and in other numerous countries es pecially across Asia. In some countries with high HIV frequency among the IDUs, HIV prevention measures have been implemented however reports of low effective impact ability upon epidemic among the IDUs is due to their limited availability and thus receive few drug users. On the other hand some assessed countries are yet to enact policies that specifically address HIV/AIDS issues affecting the IDUs. Some countries rarely address the issue before it becomes an epidemic and therefore the policy makers and programs tasked with the drug use and HIV are deemed unnecessary. Across the world over, HIV and AIDS response in Australia is recognised as a success. The national prevalence is lower compared to other high income countries. Through peer education and community based organisations the IDUs, gay communities, and sex workers in Australia on a national gesture prepared early and efficient on the embryonic crisis such as providing support, care and education on the importance of safe se x and drug injecting practises. Initially, the government and healthcare professionals established sturdy leadership program, across the affected communities and the epidemic at large. Australia continues to utilize and gain from the good leadership foundation and the level of the policy innovation. For instance, the implementation of